This handout has been prepared as a supplement to this presentation, not as a substitute for it. As you see, it contains “thumbnail” pictures of the slides and comments about each one. Some parts of the comments contain actual content, or explanations of the points in the slide, but other parts contain commentary to the audience, especially when the given slide is more self-explanatory. Given that this is a lecture and not a “hands-on” workshop, my purpose is to introduce you to several concepts and procedures and hopefully to stimulate your interest in further study and planning for applying these ideas. For that reason, I have included numerous references which will give you the opportunity to do more reading. All of the papers that I have authored are available electronically upon request.
1. A central characteristic of my work on motivation is that I want it to be firmly grounded in proven theories and research on human motivation. Yet, I want it to be useful and applicable by people who are trying to design and create learning environments and instructional materials that stimulate learners to pursue learning because 1) it is useful and also because 2) it is exciting to learn, to experience the pleasure of an insight and to gain a new level of understanding of something that was only a “block of ignorance” or a mystery.
2. The presentation begins by reviewing some of the commonly held assumptions about motivation. Unfortunately, some of these assumptions interfere with successful motivational practices rather than supporting them. The presentation then describes the characteristics of each component of a holistic theory of human motivation and how you can stimulate students’ motivation to learn. Next, I will describe a systematic process for conducting motivational design which includes guidelines for how to analyze your students’ motivational levels and to then prepare strategies based on their motivational profiles. This is followed by guidelines for how to integrate motivational strategies into your lesson plans. The presentation closes with descriptions of two measurement instruments that you can use in research or to obtain feedback from your students.
3. This question is exactly what I was asking myself many years ago when I began my efforts to synthesize the psychological and educational research on motivation with the goal of synthesizing it and making it useful for instructional designers and teachers.
What do you think the answer is?
4. The best way to learn about motivational concepts and systematic design is to know, before you start, what kinds of problems you face. When you do this, you can then decide which problems you might be able to solve versus the ones that you might not have any control over. Surprisingly, as you learn to improve motivation in those situations where you have some control, you then begin to realize that maybe you can make improvements in those situations where you assumed you had no control. I get this information from my audiences when I am doing a workshop or teaching my regular course.
The motivational challenges exercise that is illustrated in this slide helps me make connections between my content and how the audience can apply it to their problems.
5. How much do you already know about how to motivate students to learn? All of you were students for many years, and still are students when you attend a course. You know what captures your interest in a class and what leads to boredom. Why can’t you just use this knowledge to make your own courses motivating?
When I teach my motivation course or a workshop, I ask members of the audience to think about things their teachers did that motivated them and kept them interested. Next, I ask them to list some things that bored them or caused them to lose interest. After doing this, I ask, “Given all this personal knowledge about what makes a class motivating, or de-motivating, why can’t you just use this knowledge to make your own classes interesting?” They will point out such things as, “I know what I like, but I can’t be sure this is what other people will like.” Or, they say, “Sometimes my students like individual assignments and sometimes they are motivated by group work. How do I know when to use one approach or the other?” The point of this exercise is to point out that there are things to learn about how to motivate others even though you have a lot of first-hand experience with what motivates you.
6. Before I reveal this slide, there is an interesting question that I will ask you. Your answer will illustrate a commonly held assumption about motivation and curiosity!
7. Teachers, and other people, have numerous attitudes about motivation. For example, whose responsibility is motivation? Is it your responsibility to motivate the students, or is it their responsibility to want to learn the content of your course? Also, can we expect every teacher to know how to be a “motivator,” or is this a special talent that some people have and some do not? As I reveal the several layers of this slide, I will explore these issues with you and give you my opinions about some “myths versus realities” regarding motivation and teaching.
8. Does motivation have elements? What does that mean? Isn’t it the case that someone is either motivated or not motivated in a given situation? This question introduces my quest to find out whether or not it was possible to synthesize the many different concepts and theories of human motivation that existed in the literature at the time I began my search.
9. The psychological research on human motivation contains many specific motivational concepts and theories. Some are similar and some are quite different from each other. As you look at this list, which contains only a few of the various concepts and theories, you can ask yourself, just as I did many years ago, whether you think it is possible to cluster them into a smaller, meaningful number of higher level concepts. Furthermore, can it be done in such a way that the result will be a theoretically valid synthesis, not just an eclectic accumulation of ideas?
10. In fact, I did succeed in creating a synthesis of the literature on human motivation. I did this by looking for common attributes among the many different motivational concepts. For example, there were several concepts, such as locus of control, origin-pawn theory, and self-efficacy, that all focused on the concept of personal control; that is, the degree to which people believe they have control over achieving their goals and/or obtaining the rewards that they seek. Also, I found a group of concepts that helped explain what kinds of goals people choose. Or, in other words, what are the things they desire and want to achieve. Based on this type of “clustering analysis” which focuses on identifying the shared attributes among concepts instead of the attributes that differentiate between them, I was able to build a small number of categories (four, to be exact) that provided an adequate and valid basis for synthesizing these many different motivational concepts (Keller, 1983). The result became known as the ARCS model (Keller, 1987a, , 1987b).
11. There are many things you can do to get students’ attention. A sudden noise, a sudden quietness, a new or unusual object in the classroom, or any number of simple devices can be used. However, the challenge is to keep their attention. People have different capacities for paying attention, or in other words, “attention spans.” Some become bored and restless very quickly while others can be relaxed and attentive for a long time. Because of this, you have to go beyond simple attention getting tactics and activate the students’ curiosity to maintain their attention. A deeper level of curiosity is aroused when students have a desire to understand why things happen the way they do, or when they want to explore a topic of interest to learn more about it. It is also important to incorporate variability in one’s approaches, because no matter how interesting a given tactic is, people will adapt to it and lose interest over time. With respect to psychological research, the attention category incorporates the concepts of curiosity and arousal (Berlyne, 1965; Lowenstein, 1994), interest (Renninger, Hidi, & Krapp, 1992), boredom (Kopp, 1982), and other related areas such as sensation seeking (Zuckerman, 1971).
12. What are you thinking when you look at this slide? Does it stimulate your curiosity? Why? Maybe there will be some additional information about this on this slide. As the information on each sign post is revealed, you will learn a new element of curiosity arousal that will help you keep your students’ attention. Also, these elements will help explain why this slide is curiosity arousing.
13. Have your students ever asked, “Why should I have to learn this?” Have you ever asked this question yourself, or have you wondered, “Why do I have to teach this particular content?” On these occasions, the students and perhaps even you are wondering what the value is of a particular subject. This brings up the second requirement of motivation which is to build relevance. Even if you stimulate their curiosity, the students’ motivation will be lost if the content has no perceived value to them. Relevance refers to learners’ perceptions that the instructional requirements are consistent with their goals, compatible with their learning styles, and connected to their past experiences. A key component of relevance is goal orientation which is demonstrated in traditional achievement motivation research (McClelland, 1984). Learner goals can be extrinsically motivated, as illustrated by the need to pass a course to be eligible for a desired opportunity, or intrinsically motivated as when the learner is engaged in actions that are personally interesting and freely chosen. This condition of intrinsic motivation is an example of self-determination (Deci & Ryan, 1985) and can lead to sustained goal-oriented behavior. In recent years it has been popular in the literature of constructivist psychology to refer to certain aspects of relevance as “authentic” learning experiences (Duffy, Lowyck, & Jonassen, 1993). However, this is not different from the long tradition in education and training that demonstrates the benefits on learning and transfer when knowledge and skills are taught in their contexts of application (Travers, 1977). Other motivational concepts that help explain relevance are motives such as the needs for affiliation and power (McClelland, 1984), competence (White, 1959), and flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990).
One traditional way of establishing relevance is to relate your instructional content to the learners’ future job or academic requirements. However, this often has no immediate appeal to the students, or has only a very limited effect on perceived relevance. Another and often more effective approach is to use simulations, analogies, case studies, and examples related to the students‘ immediate and current interests and experiences. For example, secondary school children enjoy reading stories with themes of stigma, popularity, and isolation because these are important issues at that time of their lives.
14. This slide explains an activity I use in my graduate classes, but it can be used at any grade level after the students have learned to read. It helps build relevance in several ways, even if the students do not initially believe the content has any relevance for them. First, by giving them a specific role to play in a group project, and later in front of the whole class, it makes the content of the reading relevant to their task. Consequently, as they review the content, they are more likely to find points of relevance than they were before. Additionally, there is a social demand characteristic that helps make the content have higher relevance. That is, everyone has to try to find useful or interesting items in the reading and this creates some “social pressure” for each individual to have something to offer to the group. Another benefit is that by discussing the points with other students, they are more likely to rephrase the content in their own words and integrate it into their overall structure of knowledge than they would if they were individually studying the material and then taking a test on it.
15. Even if your students are interested in the topic and believe it to be relevant to their interests, you will still have a motivation problem if they do not feel confident that they can learn it. The third ARCS category, confidence, incorporates concepts and theories that help explain the degree to which people believe they can or can’t achieve a goal. It includes locus of control (Rotter, 1972), attribution theory (Weiner, 1992), personal causation theory (deCharms, 1976), task versus ego goal orientation (Nichols, 1984), and the related concepts of learning versus performance orientation (C. S. Dweck, 1986). Even though each of these concepts and theories has unique attributes, all of them have a direct influence on confidence. The locus of control and attribution theories explain how people’s expectations of control over outcomes or attributions for success and failure will influence their confidence and persistence. The goal orientation concepts explain how a person’s focus on accomplishing a task versus worrying about outcomes will influence confidence and performance versus procrastination. This category of confidence includes some of the most currently popular areas of motivational research, two of which are self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977) and attribution theory (Weiner, 1992) in addition to goal orientation theory (C.S. Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Nicholls, 1984).
16. Another challenge to motivation is that even if the students are interested and believe the class is relevant, they will not be fully motivated unless they also have confidence that they can learn the required content and skills. This is accomplished by helping students establish a positive expectancy for success. Often students have low confidence because they have very little understanding of what is expected of them. By making the objectives clear and providing examples of acceptable achievements, it is easier to build confidence. Another factor that influences whether or not students will be confident and even increase confidence depends on how they attribute the causes of their successes or failures. Being successful in one situation can improve a student’s overall confidence if he or she attributes success to personal effort or ability. But, if the student believes that success was due to external factors such as luck, lack of challenge, or decisions of other people, then confidence in one’s skills is not likely to increase. Thus, it is important for teachers to help students perceive that they succeeded at challenging tasks due to their own abilities and hard work!
17. Building the students’ confidence in their ability to perform a complex task often requires a step-by-step process leading from a simple introduction to the topic through a series of learning experiences that result, finally, in the application of the skill. In this example, my goal is to teach graduate students how to do interviews and observations as part of a job analysis, and then to analyze all the data to organize it into a meaningful hierarchical structure. However, the same general process can be used when teaching elementary or secondary students how to do complex tasks that require research, analysis, and synthesis. For example, a resource teacher named Gail Hicks used this process to teach her students how to do research in their communities that required them to interview people, read archival information, and compile all of it into a final report. A key element of this approach is that you go through the whole process quickly so that students get the “complete picture” in a short time before they go out to actually do their research.
18. If your students are attentive, interested in the content, and moderately challenged, then they will be motivated to learn. But to sustain this motivation, the fourth condition of motivation is required -- satisfaction. It refers to positive feelings about one‘s accomplishments and learning experiences. It means that students receive recognition and evidence of success that support their intrinsic feelings of satisfaction and they believe they have been treated fairly. Tangible extrinsic rewards can also produce satisfaction, and they can be either substantive or symbolic. That is, they can consist of grades, privileges, promotions or such things as certificates, monogrammed school supplies, or other tokens of achievement. However, these things are not as important as helping students experience the intrinsic satisfaction of accomplishing a difficult goal, having a meaningful insight, or developing a new skill. In fact, extrinsic rewards following the principles of behavioral psychology can have a detrimental effect on intrinsic motivation if students perceive that the extrinsic rewards have a controlling effect on their behavior (Deci & Ryan, 1985). As educators, we value the intrinsic satisfaction of learning, and we want to model this for our students and have them develop the same values. However, extrinsic rewards are an important aspect of managing and controlling students’ behavior, and they will not interfere with intrinsic motivation if they are used in accordance with established principles of behavior management (Skinner, 1968) and intrinsic reinforcement (Condry, 1977).
19. To help reinforce students’ good feelings about these things, you can provide opportunities to apply what they have learned to a meaningful project and provide positive feedback about their achievements. Praise, to be effective, should be task contingent; that is, in addition to, or even instead of giving broad, global positive comments in reference to a specific assignment, such as, “You are such a good student,” it is highly effective to relate comments of praise to specific accomplishments of the student. For example, “You did a great job on this report. Your summary of the key points from these readings was both accurate and interesting.” For students who are, perhaps, trying to do a special project for their science or language class and who are going beyond the basic requirement to do something more rigorous or creative than normal, it would create a great deal of satisfaction for them to receive some special resources in the form of extra school supplies or released time to work on the project. Finally, a sense of equity, or fairness, is important. Students must feel that the amount of work required by the course was appropriate, that there was internal consistency between objectives, content, and tests, and that there was no favoritism in grading.
20. The motivation of students does not occur in a vacuum. That is, you can not isolate motivation from other factors that influence learning and achievement. It is also necessary to combine good principles of instruction with the motivational strategies that have been described, and it is also important to consider the learning styles and special aptitudes of the students. One of the theories that help in this regard is Gardner’s theory (1993) of multiple intelligences. This theory explains the many ways in which people come to know their world. For example, one of the most powerful intelligences for humans is verbal/linguistic intelligence which refers to the ability to use language effectively. Another of the eight intelligences identified by Gardner is logical/mathematical which, like language, is a powerful capacity for knowing the world. But, not all of the intelligences are “intellectual” in the sense that they are not all “cerebral.” The others include kinesthetic, musical or rhythmical, inter- and intrapersonal intelligence, and naturalist intelligence. You can use your knowledge of these intelligences to greatly increase the motivation of students to learn by matching your instructional and motivational strategies to your students’ dominant intelligences. If your students have a high level of musical/rhythmical intelligence, they might appreciate and enjoy certain passages of music, such as something from Bach, to stimulate their interest in mathematical proportions. However, if they are somewhat low in this area of intelligence, they might find this approach boring or even annoying. For these students, it might be more curiosity arousing to introduce a mathematical paradox for them to work on. The more you know about the native abilities and preferred learning styles of your students, the more you can do to have them become intrinsically motivated and deeply engaged in learning your subject.
21. One person who has done a lot in China to integrate Gardner’s model into lesson planning and teaching is Professor Meng Wanjin who is with the China National Institute for Educational Research and whom many of you know. In this slide, I have taken elements of one of his lesson plans and illustrated how aspects of learner motivation can be integrated into it.
22. It is one thing to have a lot of knowledge about various motivational factors and types of multiple intelligences, but it is something else to know how to apply this knowledge in a systematic way to the improvement of instruction. The following section will explain how a systematic process of motivational design can be used to answer this question.
23. The systematic motivational design process, like any other systematic problem solving process, begins with analyzing the problem. In this case, your goal is to understand what the motivational characteristics of your students are. In other words, if they seem to be unmotivated, you want to discover specifically what kinds of motivational problems they are having. It is also important to look at the setting. There might be problems with peer groups, families, past failures, instructional resources, boring textbooks, or other things that interfere with motivation. The next step is to create motivational strategies that are designed to solve the specific motivational problems that you identified. After you have done this, you can develop your materials, try them out, and evaluate them. You can learn more about this systematic process in some of my papers (Keller, 1987c, , 1999; Keller & Suzuki, 1988)
24. Can you say that a person is either motivated or unmotivated? When a student is unmotivated, does that mean that his or her motivation is too low? Or, is it also possible for a student’s motivation to be too high? The answers to these questions are contained in an examination of the graph in this slide. It illustrates that the relationship between motivation and performance is curvilinear. If a person’s motivation is too low, the person will be bored or uninterested and his or her performance will not be as high as if he or she is more highly motivated. But, the graph also shows that motivation can be so high that it has a detrimental effect on performance. How can this be? Don’t we always want to increase motivation whenever we can?
25. This inverted U-curve, as it is called in English because it looks like the letter “U” turned upside down, can be used as a basis for analyzing learners. In this example, we assume that a class of elementary school students is studying the properties of circles in their mathematics class. The teacher is applying the process of motivational analysis to predict their attitudes toward having to learn the specific concept of pi. Notice that each of the four ARCS categories is not necessarily unidimensional. Do you remember that each of these categories has three subcategories? Also, recall that in the motivational analysis, I commented on examining the students’ attitudes toward the content and toward other things such as the teaching materials. In the example in this slide, you can see that there are two different elements of Relevance that need to be taken into consideration, and there are three elements under Satisfaction!
26. I don’t know about you, but I find that a graphical representation of information often makes it easier for me to process it. Which of Gardner’s intelligences would this represent? In any case, this slide illustrates how the various dimensions of the learners’ motivational attitudes are related to the acceptable versus problematic areas of motivation. This makes it easy to identify where the major problems are that you will want to improve with the right kinds of strategies. However, there is one caution in using this graphical approach. It is not a precise mathematical model. It is a heuristic tool only. If you try to make it too precise then you will have numerous problems in trying to get enough information about the students to quantify it and put it on the graph. It might be possible to do that in the future, but at the present time, I use this as a tool to assist in analysis and decision making, and I based my decisions on a combination of personal knowledge of the audience, the knowledge of other people who have worked with the same or similar audiences, and on direct observations of or questionnaires from the audience. A very good example of the application of this process is in an article written by one of my former students and me (Visser & Keller, 1990)
27. Now you are ready to design motivational strategies in accordance with the problems identified in your analysis. It is important to realize that there are, broadly speaking, two different kinds of strategies. The first consists of what I call enhancing strategies which are for the purpose of improving motivation in those areas where there are gaps. The other type is sustaining strategies. These apply to areas where the students are motivated and you don’t want to “kill” their motivation by being boring or stressful. These are illustrated in the example in this slide which corresponds to the analysis in the previous slide. This example is based on an actual project done by one of my students.
28. There are several different ways to apply the motivational design process. The original and still more complete approach follows a ten-step process that includes a “gathering information” phase in addition to the analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation phases. Several years ago, one of my graduates, who is now a professor, developed a simplified version of this process in which you fill in the appropriate cells in a matrix that includes the identification of problems in each of the four ARCS areas and then has rows for summarizing the key problems and prescribing solutions. Both of these processes are described in one of my publications (Keller, 1999). However, the important point for now is to realize that this motivational design process is a systematic approach that helps you identify the specific areas of motivational concern in your audience. This is in contrast to the commonly held assumption, which I mentioned in my opening comments, that motivating learners requires you to be a charismatic instructor. If you conduct a good audience analysis, which is the single most critical step in the motivational design process, you will then be able to prescribe strategies to enhance and sustain learner motivation. Of course, you can never satisfy everyone all the time, but your success rate will be much higher!
29. Now that you have been thinking about motivational dimensions and motivational strategies, how are you going to incorporate this into your lesson planning and teaching? In the final analysis, motivational strategies and instructional strategies should be smoothly integrated into a lesson plan that takes the learners through the various elements of a well-designed lesson.
30. How do you go about planning lessons? In all of the settings that I am familiar with, lesson planning normally includes the components listed on this slide. The formats and levels of detail vary greatly, but these are the items that always seem to be present in one way or another. However, a typical lesson plan does not include a systematic consideration of motivation. There might be something at the beginning about how you are going to get the students interested in your lesson, but even that is missing from most plans that I have seen. It is possible that an experienced and expert teacher will include this information even if it isn’t specifically called for, but it would be even better if motivational factors were systematically included in the lesson plan.
31. I have seen many variations on this basic template for a lesson plan. If you have a template or format that you use, it might be quite different in appearance from this one, but perhaps the same basic elements are there. In any case, this one illustrates how motivational strategies and tactics can be integrated throughout the lesson plan (Keller, 2000 February).
32. There are several benefits to a plan such as this. I already mentioned, when talking about audience analysis, that I find graphical representations to be very helpful in getting a “picture” of a situation. This plan provides a layout in which it is easy to scan from side to side to see if there are good logical connections between each of the objectives and the corresponding areas of content, learning strategies, motivational strategies, and materials to support the lesson. It also makes it easier to estimate the total time for the lesson by considering how long it will take to do each part. Another benefit of a plan like this is that you can scan it from top to bottom to see what kind of sequence and balance you have in your instructional and motivational strategies to ensure that you are not using one particular instructional or motivational tactic too frequently. One of the important principles of motivational design is to have variety in your methods and media. I find that this not only makes the lesson more interesting for the students, but for me, too!
33. Now that we have covered the issues of motivational assumptions, the various elements of motivation, and how you apply this knowledge in a systematic motivational design process, we are ready for the final question: How will you know if you have been successful?
34. There are numerous methods of assessing students’ motivational attitudes. These include such things as your own “gut reactions,” student ratings, direct feedback from the students, higher levels of performance, less procrastination, etc. However, one approach is to use a measurement survey that has been shown by research to be reliable and valid. Also, this type of survey can be used as a basis for improving some of the teacher evaluation forms used by students.
35. I have developed two such surveys. One, the Course Interest Survey (CIS) can be used to assess students’ reactions to the motivational properties of instructor-led instruction. Why do I use this “academic phrase” instead of just saying “a teacher”? The reason is that we typically assume that if we refer to a teacher we are talking about classroom instruction. However, in some contemporary versions of elearning, the form of instruction is not totally self-directed learning as in most distance learning programs in the past. As you begin to use more multimedia and elearning, you might find yourself using the same model we use in our distance learning degree in my program. In our courses, the instructors are very active in the class. The class meets “virtually” once a week at a given time, and there is interaction among the students and the instructor. Thus, the instructor’s behaviors can be evaluated in terms of motivation.
In contrast, my other measurement instrument, the Instructional Materials Motivation Survey (IMMS), is more for self-directed learning materials, no matter whether they are print-based, computer assisted instruction, or other form of delivery where the student is working independently to learn the content and prepare assignments and tests. Both of these instruments have been translated into Chinese and used by several students and professors in this country. Please contact me if you would like to use them and want more information. They are copyrighted, but I allow people to use them free of charge for research.
36. Both instruments cover the various motivational concepts that are synthesized into the ARCS model. When I developed them, I prepared a list of existing and new measurement items for each of the major concepts and then followed a formal process of examining and testing them. The final products have proven to be reliable and valid in relation to measuring the four concepts of ARCS. You can use the total score from each instrument as a measure of overall motivation, and you can use one or more of the subscale scores to measure the four ARCS concepts individually.
37. Here are six of the 34 items in this survey. Can you figure out which ones illustrate A versus R versus C versus S?
38. For those of you who may be interested in the psychometric properties of this instrument, this slide illustrates that the reliability estimates of it are quite high. This means that there is very little ambiguity in the items and that you can expect different people to interpret them the same way. Also, numerous research studies have demonstrated that the instruments does, in fact, give good estimates of motivation as confirmed by differences in performance and by other indicators of motivation.
39. The Instructional Materials Motivation Survey (IMMS) has similar items, but they clearly focus more on the characteristics of the learning materials. Like the CIS, every item in this instrument is related to a specific aspect of ARCS and you can use the individual scale scores or the total scores depending on the questions you are asking.
40. This slide, like the corresponding one for the CIS, illustrates that the IMMS has high reliability estimates, even higher than the CIS. This instrument has been used in a great many research studies in the United States and other countries. Also, people have developed shortened versions of both instruments, and these shorter versions have also demonstrated good reliability and validity.
41. Do you have a better understanding of learner motivation? I hope so! We have covered quite a lot of material in this lecture. In closing, I want to emphasize that the myths and assumptions that I presented at the very beginning are very important. You can not motivate students unless you, yourself, are motivated and have a strong belief in your ability to motivate them. To help you develop your confidence in this regard, I then talked about the specific elements of learner motivation which have been synthesized into the ARCS model. Next, I addressed the question of how do you apply this knowledge in practice? To answer this, I described the systematic motivational design process which helps you identify specific motivational problems in your students and then design solutions that are targeted to those gaps. Finally, I talked about how to integrate motivation into your instructional planning and how to assess learner motivation.
42. In conclusion, I want to say that I sincerely hope that this presentation has helped you become more aware of the dimensions of motivation and how you can apply this knowledge in your work. If you want to learn more, I have included a list of references and I have some of them in electronic format which I can send to you if you are interested. All of them are in English, but there is a growing number of documents about the ARCS model in Chinese. Perhaps Dr. Meng can direct you to these, or maybe some of you can begin to build a reference list and distribute it.
Thank you for your interest in this lecture. I sincerely appreciate the opportunity to be here and am honored that you would be interested in this material. It is always highly gratifying when I learn that someone has found this material to be useful and is actually applying it in their work.
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