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“Predication analysis” is a new approach for sentential meaning analysis. “Predication” is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions, questions, commands, etc. Predication is to break down the sentence into their smaller constituents: argument (logical participant) and predicate (relation element). The “predicate” is the major or pivotal element governing the argument. We may now distinguish a “two-place predicate” (which governs two arguments, e.g., subject and object), a “one-place predicate” (which governs one argument, i.e., subject) and a “no-place predicate” that has simply no argument (no real subject or object).
述謂結(jié)構(gòu)分析：所謂述謂是指句子的抽象的語(yǔ)義內(nèi)容，絕大多數(shù)的句子內(nèi)容都是由一個(gè)人或物以及對(duì)這個(gè)人或物的表述構(gòu)成的。從語(yǔ)義結(jié)構(gòu)角度看，這兩部分分別稱為論元（argument）和謂語(yǔ)（predicate）。所謂述謂結(jié)構(gòu)分析是指通過(guò)對(duì)這兩部分的分析以達(dá)到對(duì)句子意義進(jìn)行分析的許多模式中的一種。“述謂”和“謂語(yǔ)化”是所有的健全語(yǔ)句（如命題、即肯定句、否定句、疑問(wèn)句和祈使句等）的共同特征。因此，語(yǔ)義學(xué)家就用“述謂”這一范疇并把它分解成變?cè)椭^語(yǔ)，前者是“邏輯參加者”，后者是“關(guān)系因素”，負(fù)責(zé)把變?cè)?lián)系起來(lái)。

Linguistics：

1. What is linguistics?
Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but the language of all human beings. Linguists observe language facts and investigate how language is constructed. Linguistics studies the general validity and principles whereupon all human languages.

2. Descriptive: describe and analyze linguistic facts or language people actually use (modern linguistic)
Prescriptive: lay down rules for “correct and standard” linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar)

3. Speech and writing: two major media. Speech is the primary medium of language. Writing is later developed.

Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?
First, the spoken form (speech) is prior to the written form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of language.
Second, the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed and it serves a wider range of purposes
Finally, the spoken form is the medium through which we acquire our mother tongue.

4. Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.
Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.
Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.

5. Traditional grammar: prescriptive, written, Latin-based framework.
Modern linguistics: descriptive, spoken, not necessarily Latin-based framework.
Linguistics is descriptive while the traditional grammar is prescriptive; modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, traditional grammar on the other hand tended to over-emphasize the importance of written word, because of its permanence; modern linguistics does not force language into a Latin-based framework.

How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?
Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language. It sets grammatical rules and imposes the rules on language users. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; it collects authentic and mainly spoken language data and then it studies and describes the data in an objective and scientific way.

6. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

7. Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.
Articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, acoustic phonetics
7+phonology：

8. Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.

9. Open class words: content words of a language to which we can regularly add new words
Closed class words: grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles, preposition and pronouns

10. Morpheme -- the minimal unit of meaning
Words are composed of morphemes. Words may consist of one morpheme or more morphemes

11. Auxiliary - head movement
Inversion: Move Infl to the left of the subject NP.
Inversion (revised): Move Infl to C

12. Deep structure: formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s sub-categorization properties; it contains all the units and relationships that are necessary for interpreting the meaning of the sentence.
Surface structure: corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations; it is that of the sentence as it is pronounced or written.

13. Naming theory (Plato): Words are names or labels for things.

14. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.
Ogden and Richards: semantic triangle

15. Contextualism前后關(guān)系: meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior.

16. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.
Reference, what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.

(P) Preposition: about, over, on (PP) Prepositon Phrase: mainly about
(Det): the, a, this, those (Deg): quite, very, more
(Qual): often, always, almost (Aux): must, should, can
(Con): and, but, so

17. Homonymy同義: the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.
Homophones同音: identical in sound
Homographs同行異義: identical in spelling
Complete homonyms: in both

18. Hyponymy上下位關(guān)系
Superordinate上義詞: the word which is more genera in meaning.
Hyponyms下義詞: the word which is more specific in meaning.
Co-hyponyms: hyponyms of the same superordinate.

19. X is synonymous with Y.（同義）
X is inconsistent with Y.（相矛盾）
X entails Y.（包含關(guān)系）
If X entails Y, then the meaning of X is included in Y. If X is true, Y is necessarily true; if X is false, Y may be true or false.

20. Componential analysis
The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.

21. Predication analysis
An argument（名詞） is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence.
A predicate（主要?jiǎng)釉~） is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.

22. sentence meaning differ from an utterance meaning
A sentence meaning is often considered as the intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. It is abstract and independent of context. The meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. For example, “There is a dog at the door”. The speaker could utter it as a matter- of- fact statement, telling the hearer that the dog is at the door. The speaker could use it as a warning, asking the hearer not to approach the door. There are other possibilities, too. So, the understanding of the utterance meaning of “There is a dog at the door” depends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.

(How does a sentence differ from an utterance?
A sentence is a grammatical concept. It usually consists of a subject and predicate. An utterance is the unit of communication. It is the smallest linguistic unit that has a communicative value. If we regard a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an utterance. Whether “Mary is beautiful.” is a sentence or an utterance depends on how we look at it. If we regard it as a grammatical unit or a self-contained unit in isolation, then it is a sentence. If we look at it as something uttered in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then it is an utterance. Most utterances take the form of complete sentences, but some utterances are not, and some cannot even be restored to complete sentences.)

23. Over-extension 擴(kuò)展過(guò)渡refers to the fact that Children over-extend early words, such as "Daddy", "Mummy", as a result they are likely to call all men daddy and all women mummy.
Overgeneralization過(guò)分概括: The use of previously available strategies in new situations, i.e. the application of a particular pattern of rule of the target language in many other linguistic situations.

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